Ahmed Sékou Touré (var. Sheku Turay or Ture; N'Ko: ;<!--based on equivalent entry in N'Ko Wikipedia: https://nqo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DF%9B%DF%8B%DF%9E%DF%8E%DF%AC_%DF%95%DF%8E%DF%AC%DF%99%DF%8B--> 9 January 1922 – 26 March 1984) was a Guinean political leader and African statesman who was the first president of Guinea from 1958 until his death in 1984. Touré was among the primary Guinean nationalists involved in gaining independence of the country from France. He would later die in the United States in 1984.

A devout Muslim from the Mandinka ethnic group, Sékou Touré was the great-grandson of the powerful Mandinka Muslim cleric Samori Ture who established an independent Islamic polity in part of West Africa. In 1960, he declared his Democratic Party of Guinea (Parti démocratique de Guinée, PDG) the only legal party in the state, and ruled from then on as a virtual dictator. He was re-elected unopposed to four seven-year terms in the absence of any legal opposition. Under his rule many people were killed, most notably at Camp Boiro.

Childhood and family background

thumb|left|[[Samori Ture, Touré's great-grandfather was the founder of the Wassoulou Empire, an Islamic state in present-day Guinea that resisted French colonial rule in West Africa from 1882 until his capture in 1898.]]

Sékou Touré was born on 9 January 1922, into a Muslim family in Faranah, French Guinea, part of French West Africa. Faranah is a town deep inside Guinea situated on the banks of the Niger River. He was one of seven children born to Alpha Touré and Aminata Touré, who were subsistence farmers. He was an aristocratic member of the Mandinka ethnic group. His great-grandfather was Samori Ture (Samory Touré), a noted Muslim Mandinka king who founded the Wassoulou Empire (1861–1890) in the territory of Guinea and Mali, defeating numerous small African states with his large, professionally organized and equipped army. He resisted French colonial rule until his capture in 1898, and died while held in exile in Gabon.

His father Alpha Touré was originally from the French Sudan (now Mali), and had migrated to the traditional gold mining town of Siguiri with his brothers. He eventually continued to Kankan, Kouroussa, Kissidougou, and then settled in Faranah. Aminata was not his first wife. She bore three babies, including Sékou and a brother who died in childhood, then she died giving birth to a third child, a girl named Nounkoumba. Sékou's birth supposedly coincided with an omen - a baby elephant was brought to Faranah and presented to the French colonial authorities.

Sékou Touré attended the École Coranique (Qur'anic school) in his hometown and later a French lower-primary school in Kankan. He allegedly failed the exams to enter the École normale supérieure William Ponty for refusing to write an essay critical of his ancestor Samori Toure. Also the same year, he was a founding member of the African Democratic Rally (French: Rassemblement Démocratique Africain, RDA), an alliance of political parties and affiliates in French West and Equatorial Africa.

In 1952, he became the leader of the PDG. The RDA agitated for the decolonization of Africa, and included representatives from all the French West African colonies. The party forged alliance with labor unions and Touré was elected as secretary-general.

His greatest success as a trade union leader was when workers across French Guinea went on a 71-day general strike (longer than any other territories in the French West Africa) in 1953 to force the implementation of a new overseas labor code. He was later elected to Guinea's Territorial Assembly the same year. As a result, he was elected as one of the three secretaries-general of the French Communist Party's Confédération Générale du Travail (General Confederation of Labour; CGT) in 1954.

The PDG-RDA under Sékou Touré's leadership participated in the 1954 by-election, held after the death of Yacine Diallo. He lost to Diawadou Barry. The election was, however, marred with irregularities. The French minister Robert Buron admitted in 1968 that it had been rigged by France to prevent Sékou Touré from winning.

thumb|left|Sékou Touré in 1958

In 1957, he organized the Union Générale des Travailleurs d'Afrique Noire, a common trade union centre for French West Africa. He was a leader of the RDA, working closely with Félix Houphouët-Boigny, who later was elected as president of the Ivory Coast. In 1956, Touré was elected Guinea's deputy to the French National Assembly and mayor of Conakry, positions he used to criticize the French colonial regime. The French also threatened to cut off all their aid to Guinea in the event that the colony voted to become independent of France. The Washington Post observed how brutal the French were in tearing down all what they thought was their contributions to Guinea: "In reaction, and as a warning to other French-speaking territories, the French pulled out of Guinea over a two-month period, taking everything they could with them. They unscrewed light bulbs, removed plans for sewage pipelines in Conakry, the capital, and even burned medicines rather than leave them for the Guineans."

Presidency (1958–1984)

thumb|Sékou Touré visiting Yugoslavia in 1961

thumb|Sékou Touré visiting Romania in 1979

In 1960, Touré declared the PDG to be the only legal party, though the country had effectively been a one-party state since independence. For the next 24 years, Touré effectively held all governing power in the nation. He was elected to a seven-year term as president in 1961; as leader of the PDG he was the only candidate. He was reelected unopposed in 1968, 1974 and 1982. Every five years, a single list of PDG candidates was returned to the National Assembly.

During his presidency, Touré's policies were strongly based on socialism, with the nationalization of foreign companies and centralized economic plans. He won the Lenin Peace Prize as a result in 1961. His early actions to reject the French and then to appropriate wealth and farmland from traditional landlords angered many powerful forces, but the increasing failure of his government to provide either economic opportunities or democratic rights angered more. Famously, he stated that "Guinea prefers poverty in freedom to riches in slavery." As a leader of the Pan-Africanist movement, Touré consistently spoke out against colonial powers, and befriended African American civil rights activists such as Malcolm X and Stokely Carmichael, to whom he offered asylum. Carmichael took the two leaders' names, as Kwame Ture.

thumb|Sékou Touré with US President [[John F. Kennedy in October 1962]]

Touré had good relations with the United States under President John F. Kennedy. However, after Kennedy's assassination, the relationship with Washington soured. When a Guinean delegation was imprisoned in Ghana, after the overthrow of Nkrumah, Touré blamed Washington. He feared that the Central Intelligence Agency, as well as the Soviet Union, were plotting against his own regime even though he was taking economic aid from both parties.), French university teachers Maria Candéa an Laélia Véron praise Touré for having made official eight local languages of Guinea. They describe his linguistic policy as "très ambitieuse" (very ambitious).

Between 1969 and 1976, according to Amnesty International, 4,000 persons in Guinea were detained for political reasons, with the fate of 2,900 unknown. After an alleged Fulani plot to assassinate Touré was disclosed in May 1976, Diallo Telli, a cabinet minister and formerly the first secretary-general of the OAU, was arrested and sent to prison. He died without trial in November of that year.

thumb|U.S. President [[Jimmy Carter welcoming Sékou Touré outside the White House, Washington, D.C., 1979]]

In 1977, protests against the regime's economic policy, which dealt harshly with unauthorized trading, led to riots in which three regional governors were killed. Touré responded by relaxing restrictions on trading, offering amnesty to exiles (thousands of whom returned), and releasing hundreds of political prisoners. Relations with the Soviet bloc grew cooler, as Touré sought to increase Western aid and private investment for Guinea's sagging economy.

He imprisoned or exiled his strongest opposition leaders. Large numbers of suspected political opponents were imprisoned in concentration camps, such as the notorious Camp Boiro in Conakry. In 2002, mass graves were discovered near Kindia containing hundreds of bodies. Most of the victims were killed on 17 and 18 October 1971 by Touré's regime. One grave reportedly contained 400 bodies. Some scholars and international agencies have provided significantly lower estimates, with a US House of Representatives report placing the number at around 5,000 killed.

thumb|Sékou Touré with U.S. President [[Ronald Reagan, 1982]]

Once Guinea began its rapprochement with France in the late 1970s, Marxists among Touré's supporters began to oppose his government's shift toward capitalist liberalisation. In 1978, Touré formally renounced Marxism and reestablished trade with the West.

Single-list elections for an expanded National Assembly were held in 1980.

Desecration of Touré's tomb

On July 14, 2020, his grave was desecrated by an unknown person. According to a relative of the CEO of the GDR who went to the scene of the desecration, the individual set fire to the tricolor which was in the grave. Then he began to pour liquid into the burial place. The next day his widow lamented the act of desecration. She herself clarified that the mausoleum belongs to her clan and that it is abandoned without security. She considered hiring security personnel.

Awards and honours

Foreign awards and honours

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| style="font-size:90%;" | Grand Cross of the Order of Merit of the Federal Republic of Germany

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| style="text-align:center; font-size:90%;" | 1959

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| style="font-size:90%;" | Collar of the Order of the White Lion

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| style="text-align:center; font-size:90%;" | 30 November 1959

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| style="font-size:90%;" | Order of the Yugoslav Great Star

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| style="text-align:center; font-size:90%;" | 7 January 1961

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| style="font-size:90%;" | Lenin Peace Prize

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| style="text-align:center; font-size:90%;" | 30 April 1961

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|-

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| style="font-size:90%;" | Grand Cross of the Legion of Honour

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| style="text-align:center; font-size:90%;" | 20 December 1978

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| 80px

| style="font-size:90%;" | Collar of the Order of Civil Merit

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| style="text-align:center; font-size:90%;" | 10 May 1979

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| 80px

| style="font-size:90%;" | Supreme Companion of the Order of the Companions of O. R. Tambo

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| style="text-align:center; font-size:90%;" | 16 June 2004<br>(posthumously)

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|Grand Officer of the Order Agostinho Neto

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|6 November 2025

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Works by Touré (partial)

  • Ahmed Sékou Touré. 8 novembre 1964 (Conakry) : Parti démocratique de Guinée, (1965)
  • A propos du Sahara Occidental : intervention du président Ahmed Sékou Touré devant le 17<sup>e</sup> sommet de l'OUA, Freetown, le 3 juillet 1980. (S.l. : s.n., 1980)
  • Address of President Ahmed Sékou Touré, President of the Republic of : suggestions submitted during the West Africa consultative regional meeting held at Conakry, during 19 and 20 November 1971. (Cairo : Permanent Secretariat of the Afro-Asian Peoples' Solidarity Organization, 1971)
  • Afrika and imperialism. Newark, N.J. : Jihad Pub. Co., 1973.
  • Conférences, discours et rapports, Conakry : Impr. du Gouvernement, (1958–)
  • Congres général de l'U.G.T.A.N. (Union général des travailleurs de l'Afrique noire) : Conakry, 15–18 janvier 1959 : rapport d'orientation et de doctrine. (Paris) : Présence africaine, c1959.
  • Discours de Monsieur Sékou Touré, Président du Conseil de Gouvernement des 28 juillet et 25 aout 1958, de Monsieur Diallo Saifoulaye, Président de l'Assemblée territoriale et du Général de Gaulle, Président du Gouvernement de la Républ (Conakry) : Guinée Française, (1958)
  • Doctrine and methods of the Democratic Party of Guinea (Conakry 1963).
  • Expérience guinéenne et unité africaine. Paris, Présence africaine (1959)
  • Guinée-Festival / commentaire et montage, Wolibo Dukuré dit Grand-pére. Conakry : Commission Culturelle du Comité Central, 1983.
  • Guinée, prélude à l'indépendance (Avant-propos de Jacques Rabemananjara) Paris, Présence africaine (1958)
  • Hommage à la révolution Cubaine; Message du camarade Ahmed Sekou Toure au peuple Cubain à l'occasion du 20<sup>e</sup> anniversaire de l'attaque de la Caserne de Moncada (Juillet 1973). Conakry : Bureau de Presse de la Presidence de la Republique, (1975).
  • Ahmed Sékou Touré. International policy and diplomatic action of the Democratic Party of Guinea; extracts from the report on doctrine and orientation submitted to the 3d National Conference of the P.D.G. (Cairo, Société Orientale de Publicité-Press, 1962)
  • Ahmed Sékou Touré. Opening speech of the Summit of Heads of State and Government by President Ahmed Sékou Touré, chairman of the Summit (November 20, 1980). (S.l. : s.n., 1980)
  • Ahmed Sékou Touré. Poèmes militants. (Conakry, Guinea) : Parti démocratique de Guinée, 1964
  • Ahmed Sékou Touré. Political leader considered as the representative of a culture. (Newark, N. J. : Jihad Productions, 19--)
  • Ahmed Sékou Touré. Pour l'amitié algéro-guinéenne. (Conakry, Guinea : Parti démocratique de Guinée, 1972)
  • Rapport de doctrine et de politique générale, Conakry : Imprimerie Nationale, 1959.
  • Strategy and tactics of the revolution, Conakry, Guinea : Press Office, 1978.
  • Unité nationale, Conakry, République de Guinée (B.P. 1005, Conakry, République de Guinée) : Bureau de presse de la Présidence de la République, 1977.

See also

  • Politics of Guinea
  • 1963 visit by Sékou Touré to the Republic of the Congo
  • Palais présidentiel Sekhoutoureah

References

Citations

Sources

  • Henry Louis Gates, Anthony Appiah (eds). Africana: The Encyclopedia of the African and African, "Ahmed Sékou Touré," pp.&nbsp;1857–58. Basic Civitas Books (1999).
  • Molefi K. Asante, Ama Mazama. Encyclopedia of Black Studies. Sage Publications (2005)
  • Ibrahima Baba Kake. Sékou Touré. Le Héros et le Tyran. Paris, 1987, JA Presses. Collection Jeune Afrique Livres. 254 p
  • Lansiné Kaba. "From Colonialism to Autocracy: Guinea under Sékou Touré, 1957–1984;" in Decolonization and African Independence, the Transfers of Power, 1960–1980. Prosser Gifford and William Roger Louis (eds). New Haven: Yale University Press, 1988.
  • Phineas Malinga. "Ahmed Sékou Touré: An African Tragedy"
  • Baruch Hirson. "The Misdirection of C.L.R. James", Communalism and Socialism in Africa, 1989.
  • John Leslie. Towards an African socialism, International Socialism (1st series), No.1, Spring 1960, pp.&nbsp;15–19.
  • Alpha Mohamed Sow, "Conflits ethnique dans un État révolutionnaire (Le cas Guinéen)", in Les ethnies ont une histoire, Jean-Pierre Chrétien, Gérard Prunier (ed), pp.&nbsp;386–405, Karthala Editions (2003)
  • Parts of this article were translated from French Wikipedia's :fr:Ahmed Sékou Touré.

; News articles

  • "New West Africa Union Sealed By Heads of Ghana and Guinea" By Thomas F. Brady, The New York Times. May 2, 1959, p.&nbsp;2
  • Guinea Shuns Tie to World Blocs; But New State Gets Most Aid From East—Toure Departs for a Visit to the U. S. By John B. Oakes, The New York Times, October 25, 1959, p.&nbsp;16,
  • Red Aid to Guinea Rises By Homer Bigart, The New York Times. March 6, 1960, p.&nbsp;4
  • Henry Tanner. Regime in Guinea Seizes 2 Utilities; Toure Nationalizes Power and Water Supply Concerns—Pledges Compensation, The New York Times. February 2, 1961, Thursday, p.&nbsp;3
  • Toure Says Reds Plotted a Coup; Links Communists to Riots by Students Last Month. (UPI), The New York Times. December 13, 1961, Wednesday, p.&nbsp;14
  • Toure's Country--'Africa Incarnate'; Gui'nea embodies the emphatic nationalism and revolutionary hopes of ex-colonial Africa, but its energetic President confronts handicaps that are also typically African. Toure's Country--'Africa Incarnate' By David Halberstam, July 8, 1962, Sunday The New York Times Magazine, p.&nbsp;146
  • Guinea Relaxes Business Curbs; Turns to Free Enterprise to Rescue Economy. (Reuters), The New York Times, December 8, 1963, Sunday p.&nbsp;24
  • U.S. Peace Corps Ousted by Guinea; 72 Members and Dependents to Leave Within a Week By Richard Eder, The New York Times, November 9, 1966, Wednesday, p.&nbsp;11
  • Guinea Is Warming West African Ties, The New York Times, January 26, 1968, Friday, p.&nbsp;52
  • Alfred Friendly Jr. Toure Adopting a Moderate Tone; But West Africa Is Skeptical of Guinean's Words. The New York Times. April 28, 1968, Sunday, p.&nbsp;13
  • Ebb of African 'Revolution', The New York Times, December 7, 1968, Saturday p.&nbsp;46
  • Guinea's President Charges A Plot to Overthrow Him, (Agence France-Presse), The New York Times, January 16, 1969, Thursday p.&nbsp;10
  • Guinea Reports 2 Members Of Cabinet Seized in Plot, (Reuters), The New York Times, March 22, 1969, Saturday p.&nbsp;14
  • 12 Foes of Regime Doomed in Guinea, The New York Times, May 16, 1969, Friday p.&nbsp;2
  • Guinea Reports Invasion From Sea by Portuguese; Lisbon Denies Charge U.N. Council Calls for End to Attack Guinea Reports an Invasion From Sea (Associated Press), The New York Times, November 23, 1970, Monday, p.&nbsp;1
  • Guinea: Attack Strengthens Country's Symbolic Role, The New York Times, November 29, 1970, Sunday, p.&nbsp;194
  • Guinean is Adamant On Death Sentences, The New York Times, January 29, 1971, Friday. p.&nbsp;3
  • Guinea Wooing the West In Bauxite Development; Guinea is Seeking Help On Bauxite, The New York Times, February 15, 1971, Monday Section: Business and Finance, p.&nbsp;34
  • Political Ferment Hurts Guinea, The New York Times, January 31, 1972, Monday Section: Survey of Africa's Economy, p.&nbsp;46
  • Guinean, in Total Reversal, Asks More U.S. Investment by Bernard Weinraub, The New York Times, July 2, 1982, Friday Late City Final Edition, p. A3, Col. 5
  • Guinea is Slowly Breaking Out of Its Tight Cocoon by Alan Cowell, The New York Times, December 3, 1982, Friday, Late City Final Edition, p. A2, Col. 3
  • In Revolutionary Guinea, Some of the Fire is Gone by Alan Cowell, The New York Times, December 9, 1982, Thursday, Late City Final Edition, p. A2, Col. 3
  • Guinea's president, Sekou Toure, Dies in Cleveland Clinic by Clifford D. May, The New York Times, Obituary, March 28, 1984, Wednesday, Late City Final Edition, p. A1, Col. 1
  • Thousands Mourn Death of Toure by Clifford D. May, The New York Times, March 29, 1984, Thursday, Late City Final Edition, p. A3, Col. 1
  • Ahmed Sekou Toure, a Radical Hero by Eric Pace, The New York Times, Obituary, March 28, 1984, Wednesday, Late City Final Edition, p. A6, Col. 1
  • In Post-Coup Guinea, a Jail is Thrown Open. Clifford D. May. The New York Times, April 12, 1984, Thursday, Late City Final Edition, p.A1, Col. 4
  • Topics; How to Run Things, Or Ruin Them, The New York Times, March 29, 1984.
  • Guinea Airport Opens; Capital Appears Calm, The New York Times, April 7, 1984.
  • Guinea Frees Toure's Widow, (Reuters), The New York Times, January 3, 1988.
  • How France Shaped New Africa, Howard W. French, The New York Times, February 28, 1995.
  • Conversations/Kwame Ture; Formerly Stokely Carmichael And Still Ready for the Revolution, Karen DeWitt, The New York Times, April 14, 1996.
  • Stokely Carmichael, Rights Leader Who Coined 'Black Power,' Dies at 57, Michael T. Kaufman, The New York Times, November 16, 1998.
  • 'Mass graves' found in Guinea. BBC, 22 October 2002.
  • Stokely Speaks (Book Review), Robert Weisbrot, The New York Times Review of Books, November 23, 2003.

; Other secondary sources

  • Graeme Counsel. "Popular music and politics in Sékou Touré's Guinea". Australasian Review of African Studies. 26 (1), pp. 26–42. 2004
  • Jean-Paul Alata. Prison d'Afrique
  • Jean-Paul Alata. Interview-témoignage de Jean-Paul Alata sur Radio-France Internationale
  • Herve Hamon, Patrick Rotman L'affaire Alata
  • Ladipo Adamolekun. "Sekou Toure's Guinea: An Experiment in Nation Building". Methuen (August 1976).
  • Koumandian Kéita. Guinée 61: L'École et la Dictature. Nubia (1984).
  • Ibrahima Baba Kaké. Sékou Touré, le héros et le tyran. Jeune Afrique, Paris (1987)
  • Alpha Abdoulaye Diallo. La vérité du ministre: Dix ans dans les geôles de Sékou Touré. (Questions d'actualité), Calmann-Lévy, Paris (1985).
  • Kaba Camara 41. Dans la Guinée de Sékou Touré : cela a bien eu lieu.
  • Kindo Touré. Unique survivant du Complot Kaman-Fodéba
  • Adolf Marx. Maudits soient ceux qui nous oublient.
  • Ousmane Ardo Bâ. Camp Boiro. Sinistre geôle de Sékou Touré. Harmattan, Paris (1986)
  • Mahmoud Bah. Construire la Guinée après Sékou Touré
  • Mgr. Raymond-Marie Tchidimbo. Noviciat d'un évêque : huit ans et huit mois de captivité sous Sékou Touré.
  • Amadou Diallo. La mort de Telli Diallo
  • Almamy Fodé Sylla. L'Itinéraire sanglant
  • Comité Telli Diallo. J'ai vu : on tue des innocents en Guinée-Conakry
  • Alsény René Gomez. Parler ou périr
  • Sako Kondé. Guinée. Le temps des fripouilles
  • André Lewin. Diallo Telli. Le Destin tragique d'un grand Africain.
  • Camara Laye. Dramouss
  • Dr. Thierno Bah. Mon combat pour la Guinée
  • Nadine Bari. Grain de sable
  • Nadine Bari. Noces d'absence
  • Nadine Bari. Chroniques de Guinée (1994)
  • Nadine Bari. Guinée. Les cailloux de la mémoire (2004)
  • Maurice Jeanjean. Nadine Bari. Sékou Touré, Un totalitarisme africain
  • Collectif Jeune Afrique. Sékou Touré. Ce qu'il fut. Ce qu'il a fait. Ce qu'il faut défaire.
  • Claude Abou Diakité. La Guinée enchaînée
  • Alpha Condé. Guinée, néo-colonie américaine ou Albanie d'Afrique
  • Lansiné Kaba. From colonialism to autocracy. Guinea under Sékou Touré: 1957–1984
  • Charles E. Sory. Sékou Touré, l'ange exterminateur
  • Charles Diané. Sékou Touré, l'homme et son régime : lettre ouverte au président Mitterrand
  • Emile Tompapa. Sékou Touré : quarante ans de dictature
  • Alpha Ousmane Barry. Pouvoir du discours et discours du pouvoir : l'art oratoire chez Sékou Touré de 1958 à 1984
  • 1959 Time magazine cover story about Sékou Touré
  • WebGuinee – Sekou Toure Publishes full text of books and articles as well photos of Sekou Toure
  • Camp Boiro Memorial. Extensive list of reports and articles on the notorious political prison where thousands of victims of the dictatorship of Sekou Toure disappeared between 1960 and 1984.
  • BBC Radio: President Sekou Toure Defends One-Party Rule (1959).
  • Conflict history: Guinea, 11 May 2007. International Crisis Group.
  • 1st page on the French National Assembly website
  • 2nd page on the French National Assembly website