Agriculture in the United States

thumb|A farm at the base of [[Catoctin Mountain between Thurmont and Emmitsburg, Maryland.]]

Agriculture in the United States is a major industry in the country, which is a net exporter of food. As of the 2017 census of agriculture, there were 2.04 million farms, covering an area of , an average of per farm.

Agricultural activity is particularly concentrated in the Central Valley of California and the Great Plains. The Great Plains are a vast expanse of flat arable land in the center of the nation covering an area west of the Great Lakes and east of the Rocky Mountains. The eastern wetter half is a major corn and soybean-producing region known as the Corn Belt, and the western drier half is known as the Wheat Belt because of its high rate of wheat production. The Central Valley of California produces fruits, vegetables, and nuts. The American South has historically been a large producer of cotton, tobacco, and rice, but it has declined in agricultural production over the past century. Florida leads the nation in citrus production and is the number two producer of oranges in the world behind only Brazil.

The U.S. has led developments in seed improvement, such as hybridization, and in expanding uses for crops from the work of George Washington Carver to bioplastics and biofuels. The mechanization of farming and intensive farming have been major themes in U.S. history, including John Deere's steel plow, Cyrus McCormick's mechanical reaper, Eli Whitney's cotton gin, and the widespread success of the Fordson tractor and the combine harvester. Modern agriculture in the U.S. ranges from hobby farms and small-scale producers to large commercial farms that cover thousands of acres of cropland or rangeland.

History

thumb|Worker overseeing cotton gin, ca. 1940s[[Cotton production in the United States|Cotton farming on a Southern plantation in 1921|thumb]]

thumb|210px|This photo from a 1921 encyclopedia<br />shows a [[tractor plowing a crop field.]]

Corn, turkeys, tomatoes, potatoes, peanuts, and sunflower seeds constitute some of the major holdovers from the agricultural endowment of the Americas.

Colonists had more access to land in the colonial United States than they did in Europe. The organization of labor was complex including free persons, slaves and indentured servants depending on the regions where either slaves or poor landless laborers were available to work on family farms.

European agricultural practices greatly affected the New England landscape. Colonists brought livestock over from Europe which caused many changes to the land. Grazing animals required a lot of land and food and the act of grazing itself destroyed native grasses, which were being replaced by European species. New species of weeds were introduced and began to thrive as they were capable of withstanding the grazing of animals, whereas native species could not.

The practices associated with keeping livestock also contributed to the deterioration of the forests and fields. Colonists would cut down the trees and then allow their cattle and livestock to graze freely in the forest and never plant more trees. The animals trampled and tore up the ground so much as to cause long-term destruction and damage. In the northeast, slaves were used in agriculture until the early 19th century. In the Midwest, slavery was prohibited by the Freedom Ordinance of 1787.

thumb|2015 US$ value of agricultural output of the US since 1961

The introduction and broad adoption of scientific agriculture since the mid-19th century contributed to economic growth in the United States. This development was facilitated by the Morrill Act and the Hatch Act of 1887 which established in each state a land-grant university (with a mission to teach and study agriculture) and a federally funded system of agricultural experiment stations and cooperative extension networks which place extension agents in each state.

Soybeans were not widely cultivated in the United States until the early 1930s, and by 1942 it became the world's largest soybean producer, due in part to World War II and the "need for domestic sources of fats, oils, and meal". Between 1930 and 1942, the United States' share of world soybean production grew from 3% to 47%, and by 1969 it had risen to 76%. By 1973 soybeans were the United States' "number one cash crop, and leading export commodity, ahead of both wheat and corn". Although soybeans developed as the top cash crop, corn also remains as an important commodity. As the basis for "industrial food," corn is found in most modern day items at the grocery store. Aside from items like candy and soda, which contain high fructose corn-syrup, corn is also found in non-edible items like the shining wax on store advertisements.

Significant areas of farmland were abandoned during the Great Depression and incorporated into nascent national forests. Later, "Sodbuster" and "Swampbuster" restrictions written into federal farm programs starting in the 1970s reversed a decades-long trend of habitat destruction that began in 1942 when farmers were encouraged to plant all possible land in support of the war effort. In the United States, federal programs administered through local Soil and Water Conservation Districts provide technical assistance and partial funding to farmers who wish to implement management practices to conserve soil and limit erosion and floods.

Farmers in the early United States were open to planting new crops, raising new animals and adopting new innovations as increased agricultural productivity in turn increased the demand for shipping services, containers, credit, storage, and the like.

Although four million farms disappeared in the United States between 1948 and 2015, total output from the farms that remained more than doubled. The number of farms with more than almost doubled between 1987 and 2012, while the number of farms with to fell over the same period by 44%.

Farm productivity increased in the United States from the mid-20th century until the late-20th century when productivity began to stall.

From 1986 to 2018 about 30 million acres of cropland were abandoned.

Production

{| class="wikitable"

|+ Agricultural rankings as of 2018

! Crop !! Ranking !! Output

(000 tons)

!Notes

| Corn || 1 by far ||392,000 ||

| Soy || 1 ||123,600||surpassed by Brazil in 2020

| Wheat || 4 || 51,200 || behind China, India, and Russia

| Sugar beets ||3 || 30,000 ||behind Russia, and France

| Sugar cane || 10 || 31,300||

| Potatoes || 5|| 20,600 || behind China, India, Russia, and Ukraine

| Tomatoes || 3|| 12,600 || behind China and India

| Cotton ||3 || 11,400 || behind China and India

| Rice || 12|| 10,100 ||

| Sorghum ||1 || 9,200||

| Grapes ||3 || 6,800|| behind China and Italy

| Oranges || 4|| 4,800 || behind Brazil, China, and India

| Apples ||2 || 4,600|| behind China

| Lettuce and Chicory|| 2|| 3,600||behind China

| Barley || || 3,300||

| Onions || 3|| 3,200 || behind China and India

| Peanuts || 3|| 2,400 || behind China and India

| Almonds || 1|| 1,800||

| Beans || ||1,700 ||

| Watermelons ||||1,700||

| Rapeseed||||1,600 ||

| Carrots || 3|| 1,500|| behind China and Uzbekistan

| Strawberries || 2|| 1,300|| behind China

| Cauliflower and Broccoli ||3 || 1,200|| behind China and India

| Sunflower seeds ||||960 ||

| Oats ||10 || 814 ||

| Lemons ||8 || 812 ||

| Tangerines ||||804 ||

| Pears ||3 || 730 || behind China and Italy

| Green peas ||3 || 722 || behind China and India

| Peaches || 6|| 700 ||

| Walnuts || 2|| 613 || behind China

| Pistachios || 2|| 447 || behind Iran

| Lentils || 3|| 381 || behind Canada and India

| Spinach || 2|| 384|| behind China

| Plums || 4|| 368 || behind China, Romania, and Serbia

| Tobacco || 4|| 241 || behind China, Brazil, and India

In addition to smaller productions of other agricultural products, such as melon (872), pumpkin (683), grapefruit (558), cranberry (404), cherry (312), blueberry (255), rye (214), olive (138), and others.

Major agricultural products

thumb|300px|Satellite image of circular crop fields characteristic of [[center pivot irrigation in Kansas (June 2001). ]]

Tonnes of United States agriculture production, as reported by the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) of the U.N. in 2003 and 2013 (ranked roughly in order of value):

{| class="wikitable sortable"

! Millions of Tonnes in

! 2003

! 2013

|Corn ||align="right"| 256.0 ||align="right"| 354.0

|Cattle meat ||align="right"| 12.0 ||align="right"| 11.7

|Cow's milk, whole, fresh ||align="right"| 77.0 ||align="right"| 91.0

|Chicken meat ||align="right"| 14.7 ||align="right"| 17.4

|Soybeans ||align="right"| 67.0 ||align="right"| 89.0

|Pig meat ||align="right"| 9.1 ||align="right"| 10.5

|Wheat ||align="right"| 64.0 ||align="right"| 58.0

|Cotton lint ||align="right"| 4.0 ||align="right"| 2.8

|Hen eggs ||align="right"| 5.2 ||align="right"| 5.6

|Turkey meat ||align="right"| 2.5 ||align="right"| 2.6

|Tomatoes ||align="right"| 11.4 ||align="right"| 12.6

|Potatoes ||align="right"| 20.8 ||align="right"| 19.8

|Grapes ||align="right"| 5.9 ||align="right"| 7.7

|Oranges ||align="right"| 10.4 ||align="right"| 7.6

|Rice, paddy ||align="right"| 9.1 ||align="right"| 8.6

|Apples ||align="right"| 3.9 ||align="right"| 4.1

|Sorghum ||align="right"| 10.4 ||align="right"| 9.9

|Lettuce ||align="right"| 4.7 ||align="right"| 3.6

|Cottonseed ||align="right"| 6.0 ||align="right"| 5.6

|Sugar beets ||align="right"| 30.7 ||align="right"| 29.8

Other crops appearing in the top 20 at some point in the last 40 years were: tobacco, barley, and oats, and, rarely: peanuts, almonds, and sunflower seeds. Alfalfa and hay would both be in the top ten in 2003 if they were tracked by FAO.

Crops

thumb|Crop fields in the United States

Value of production

thumb|[[Paddy field|Rice paddy, California]]

{| class="wikitable sortable"

! Major Crops in the U.S.

! 1997<br />(in US$ billions)

! 2014<br />(in US$ billions)

|Corn || $24.4 || $52.3

|Soybeans || $17.7 || $40.3

|Wheat || $8.6 || $11.9

|Alfalfa || $8.3 || $10.8

|Cotton || $6.1 || $5.1

|Hay, (non-Alfalfa) || $5.1 || $8.4

|Tobacco || $3.0 || $1.8

|Rice || $1.7 || $3.1

|Sorghum || $1.4 || $1.7

|Barley || $0.9 || $0.9

! Source

!1997 USDANASS reports,

!2015 USDA-NASS reports,

Note alfalfa and hay are not tracked by the FAO and the production of tobacco in the United States has fallen 60% between 1997 and 2003.

Yield

Heavily mechanized, U.S. agriculture has a high yield relative to other countries. As of 2004:

Corn for grain, average of 160.4 bushels harvested per acre (10.07 t/ha)
Soybean for beans, average of 42.5 bushels harvested per acre (2.86 t/ha)
Wheat, average of 43.2 bushels harvested per acre (2.91 t/ha, was 44.2 bu/ac or 2.97 t/ha in 2003)

Livestock

right|thumb|Density of cattle and calves by county in 2007.

The major livestock industries in the United States:

Dairy cattle
Beef cattle
Pig
Poultry
Seafood
Sheep

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:right;"

U.S. livestock and poultry inventory

!Type

!1997

!2002

!2007

!2012

|Cattle and calves

| 99,907,017

|95,497,994

|96,347,858

|89,994,614

|Hogs and pigs

|61,188,149

|60,405,103

|67,786,318

|66,026,785

|Sheep and lambs

|8,083,457

|6,341,799

|5,819,162

|5,364,844

|Broilers<br />& other meat chickens

|1,214,446,356

|1,389,279,047

|1,602,574,592

|1,506,276,846

|Laying hens

|314,144,304

|334,435,155

|349,772,558

|350,715,978

Goats, horses, turkeys and bees are also raised, though in lesser quantities. Inventory data is not as readily available as for the major industries. For the three major goat-producing states—Arizona, New Mexico, and Texas—there were 1.2 million goats at the end of 2002. There were 5.3 million horses in the United States at the end of 1998. There were 2.5 million colonies of bees at the end of 2005.

Farm type or majority enterprise type

Farm type is based on which commodities are the majority crops grown on a farm. Nine common types include:

Cash grains includes corn, soybeans and other grains (wheat, oats, barley, sorghum), dry edible beans, peas, and rice.
Tobacco
Cotton
Other field crops includes peanuts, potatoes, sunflowers, sweet potatoes, sugarcane, broomcorn, popcorn, sugar beets, mint, hops, seed crops, hay, silage, forage, etc. Tobacco and cotton can be included here if not in their own separate category.
High-value crops includes fruits, vegetables, melons, tree nuts, greenhouse, nursery crops, and horticultural specialties.
Cattle
Hogs
Dairy
Poultry and eggs

One characteristic of the agricultural industry that sets it apart from others is the number of individuals who are self-employed. Frequently, farmers and ranchers are both the principal operator, the individual responsible for successful management and day-to-day decisions, and the primary laborer for his or her operation. For agricultural workers that sustain an injury, the resultant loss of work has implications on physical health and financial stability.

The United States has over 14,000 certified organic farms, covering more than 5 million acres, though this is less than 1% of total US farmland. The output of these farms has grown substantially since 2011, and exceeded US$7.5 billion in 2016.

Governance

thumb|Agriculture subsidy, from a [[Congressional Budget Office report. Note: chart does not show sugar subsidies.]]

Agriculture in the United States is primarily governed by periodically renewed U.S. farm bills. Governance is both a federal and a local responsibility with the United States Department of Agriculture being the federal department responsible. Government aid includes research into crop types and regional suitability as well as many kinds of federal government subsidies, price supports and loan programs. U.S. farmers are not subject to production quotas and some laws are different for farms compared to other workplaces.

Labor laws prohibiting children in other workplaces provide some exemptions for children working on farms with complete exemptions for children working on their family's farm. Children can also gain permits from vocational training schools or 4-H clubs which allow them to do jobs they would otherwise not be permitted to do.

A large part of the U.S. farm workforce is made up of migrant and seasonal workers, many of them recent immigrants from Latin America. Additional laws apply to these workers and their housing which is often provided by the farmer.

Farm labor

alt=A group of men, all wearing similarly styled overalls and wide-brimmed hats, are bent over, kneeling, and standing in a field. It appears as though most also wield a hammer-like tool.|thumb|A group of men in San Miguel County, New Mexico performing manual labor. |193x193px

Occupational safety

Agriculture ranks among the most hazardous industries due to the use of chemicals and risk of injury. Farmers are at high risk for fatal and nonfatal injuries (general traumatic injury and musculoskeletal injury), work-related lung diseases, noise-induced hearing loss, skin diseases, chemical-related illnesses, and certain cancers associated with chemical use and prolonged sun exposure. In an average year, 516 workers die doing farm work in the U.S. (1992–2005). Every day, about 243 agricultural workers suffer lost-work-time injuries, and about 5% of these result in permanent impairment. Tractor overturns are the leading cause of agriculture-related fatal injuries, and account for over 90 deaths every year. The National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health recommends the use of roll over protection structures on tractors to reduce the risk of overturn-related fatal injuries. Unlike other industries, half the young victims in agriculture were under age 15. For young agricultural workers aged 15–17, the risk of fatal injury is four times the risk for young workers in other workplaces Agricultural work exposes young workers to safety hazards such as machinery, confined spaces, work at elevations, and work around livestock. The most common causes of fatal farm-related youth injuries involve machinery, motor vehicles, or drowning. Together these three causes comprise more than half of all fatal injuries to youth on U.S. farms. Women in agriculture (including the related industries of forestry and fishing) numbered 556,000 in 2011. The frequent exposure to these pesticides can have detrimental effects on humans, resulting in adverse health reactions associated with pesticide poisoning. Migrant workers, especially women, are at higher risk for health issues associated with pesticide exposure due to lack of training or appropriate safety precautions. United States agricultural workers experience 10,000 cases or more of physician-diagnosed pesticide poisoning annually.

Drinking water contamination

The application of agricultural chemicals provides a threat to drinking water quality. Nitrate is a form of nitrogen found naturally in agricultural crops. Nitrate-based fertilizer salts replenish depleted nutrients in croplands throughout the United States. Drinking water contaminated with nitrate has been linked to methemoglobinemia, premature births, thyroid dysfunction, cancer, and cognitive impairment.

Heavy metals

Heavy metals, such as lead, zinc, and copper, are naturally found in sedimentary and igneous rocks. One way humans introduce these metals is through agricultural practices. Fertilizers containing phosphorus contribute to the amount of heavy metals in soils. Pesticides also add heavy metals to soils, depending on their chemical formula and toxicity. Heavy metal buildup in soils near bodies of water can contaminate drinking and recreational sources. The aggregation of heavy metals via air, water, and food can be detrimental to bones, organs, and organ systems. Prolonged exposure can lead to neurological complications in adults and delayed brain progression in children.

Environmental justice implications

The effects of agricultural contamination on low-income, marginalized communities has raised important environmental justice concerns. Farm workers and communities of color, who often live near the farms where they work are more likely to be exposed to harmful chemicals, pesticides, and nitrate through direct contact, inhalation, or drinking water.

Many of these communities' source their drinking water from well water, that is at high risk of being contaminated with agricultural runoff, which can cause immediate and long-term health issues. Existing regulations in much of the United States, may not be adequate to control the contamination of ground water in these communities, especially those dependent on private well water, which does not require testing under the Safe Drinking Water Act. Inequality and respect are common issues for these workers, as many have reported that they are not being respected, listened to, or taken seriously due to traditional views of women as housewives and caretakers.

Women may also face resistance when attempting to advance to higher positions. Other issues reported by female farm workers include receiving less pay than their male counterparts and a refusal or reluctance by their employers to offer their female workers the same additional benefits given to male workers such as housing.

In 2022, there were 46,738 African-American farmers in the United States, 4% less than 2017. This represents 1.4% of all U.S. farmers. The vast majority of African-American farmers were in the south-eastern states. The state with the highest share of black farmers is Mississippi (12%).

Industry

Historically, farmland has been owned by small property owners, but as of 2017 institutional investors, including foreign corporations, had been purchasing farmland. In 2013 the largest producer of pork, Smithfield Foods, was bought by a company from China. Some of these are large farms have grown organically from private family-owned businesses. For example, in the 1960s, poultry processing companies experimented with owning and operating their own farms, but shifted away from it in later decades.