Acoma Pueblo ( , ) is a Native American pueblo approximately west of Albuquerque, New Mexico, in the United States.

Four communities make up the village of Acoma Pueblo: Sky City (Old Acoma), Acomita, Anzac, and McCartys. These communities are located near the expansive Albuquerque metropolitan area, which includes several large cities and towns, including neighboring Laguna Pueblo. The Acoma Pueblo tribe is a federally recognized tribal entity, The Acoma have continuously occupied the area where Acoma Pueblo is situated for over 2,000 years. Other tribal elders assert that it means 'place that always was', while outsiders say it means 'people of the white rock'.

Acoma has been spelled in various other ways in historical documents, including ákuma, ákomage, Acus, Acux, Aacus, Hacús, Vacus, Vsacus, Yacco, Acco, Acuca, Acogiya, Acuco, Coco, Suco, Akome, Acuo, Ako, and A’ku-me. The Spanish mission name was .

The Acoma are called ( in Western Keresan, in Zuni, and in Navajo.

Language

The Acoma language is classified in the western division of the Keresan languages.

The Pueblo is situated on a mesa, about west of Albuquerque, New Mexico. The isolation and location of the Pueblo has sheltered the community for more than 1,200 years as they sought protection from the raids of the neighboring Navajo and Apache peoples.

Lieutenant Hernando de Alvarado of conquistador Francisco Vázquez de Coronado's expedition described the Pueblo (which they called Acuco) in 1540 as "a very strange place built upon solid rock" and "one of the strongest places we have seen." Upon visiting the Pueblo, the expedition "repented having gone up to the place." Further from Alvarado's report:

It is believed Coronado's expedition were the first Europeans to encounter the Acoma (Estevan was a native Moroccan).

Juan de Oñate intended to colonize New Mexico starting from 1595 (he formally held the area by April 1598). The Acoma warrior Zutacapan heard of this plan and warned the mesa and organized a defense. However, a pueblo elder, Chumpo, dissuaded war, partly to prevent deaths and partly based on Zutancalpo's (Zutacapan's son) mentioning of the widespread belief that the Spaniards were immortal. Thus, when Oñate visited on October 27, 1598, Acoma met him peacefully, with no resistance to Oñate's demand of surrender and obedience reported. Oñate demonstrated his military power by firing a gun salute. Zutacapan offered to meet Oñate formally in the religious kiva, which is traditionally used as the place to make sacred oaths and pledges. However, Oñate was scared of death and in suspicious ignorance of Acoma customs refused to enter via ladder from the roof into the dark kiva chambers. Purguapo was another Acoma man out of four chosen for Spaniard negotiations.

The Acoma suffered high mortality from smallpox epidemics, as they had no immunity to such Eurasian infectious diseases. They also suffered raiding from the Apache, Comanche, and Ute. On occasion, the Acoma would side with the Spanish to fight against these nomadic tribes. Forced to formally adopt Catholicism, the Acoma proceeded to practice their traditional religion in secrecy, and combined elements of both in a syncretic blend. Intermarriage and interaction became common among the Acoma, other pueblos, and Hispanic villages. These communities would intermingle in a kind of creolization to form the culture of New Mexico. In 2007, the mission church was designated a National Trust Historic Site, the only Native American site in that ranking as identified by the National Trust for Historic Preservation, a non-profit organization. Several generations became cut off from their culture and language, with harsh effects on their families and societies.

Present-day

thumb|250px|A street in the pueblo, 2012

About 300 two- and three-story adobe buildings stand on the mesa, with exterior ladders used to access the upper levels where residents live. Access to the mesa is by a road blasted into the rock face during the 1950s, navigable by car and bus. Footpaths down the mesa can still be used. Approximately 30

Historically Acoma was governed a cacique and war captain, who would serve until their deaths. Both individuals maintained strong religious connections to their work, representing the theocracy of Acoma governance. The Spanish imposed a group to oversee the Pueblo, but their power was not taken seriously by the Acoma. The Spanish group would work with external situations and comprised a governor, two lieutenant governors, and a council. The Acoma also participated in the All Indian Pueblo Council, which started in 1598, arose again in the 20th century, and is active today.

The cacique is still active in the community and is from the Antelope clan. The cacique appoints tribal council members, staff, and the governor.

In 2011, Acoma Pueblo and the Pueblo of Santa Clara were victims of heavy flooding. New Mexico supplied more than $1 million to fund emergency preparedness and damage repair for victims, and Governor Susana Martinez requested additional funding from the Federal Emergency Management Agency.

Reservation

thumb|A buttressed three-story building, and a relic of the ancient 11th century brick architecture that still remain in small numbers on the Pueblo

thumb|A house with a decorated doorway

The Acoma control their Indian reservation on approximately of their traditional land. Mesas, valleys, hills, and arroyos dot the landscape that averages about in altitude, with about of rain each year. Since 1977, the Acoma have increased their domain through several land purchases. On the reservation, only tribal citizens may own land and almost all enrolled citizens live on the property.

The Pueblo of Acoma () is an of the Acoma Pueblo peoples located in parts of Cibola, Socorro, and Catron counties, in New Mexico, the Southwestern United States. It covers 594.996 sq mi (1,541.033&nbsp;km<sup>2</sup>). The reservation borders the Laguna Indian Reservation to the east and is near El Malpais National Monument due west.

The total number of tribal citizens is about 6,000. According to 2020 census, 3,230 people lived on the reservation. Tribal citizens live both on the reservation and outside it.

Reservation communities include:

  • Acomita
  • Anzac
  • McCartys
  • North Acomita Village
  • Sky Line
  • Skyline-Ganipa
  • Old Sky Line

Culture

Architecture

thumb|A traditional wooden ladder leads to the second story entrance of a [[kiva, a religious contemplation chamber]]

thumb|A traditional [[horno, a mud adobe oven]]

Acoma Pueblo has three rows of three-story, apartment-style buildings, which face south on top of the mesa. The buildings are constructed from adobe brick, with beams across the roof that were covered with poles, brush, and then plaster. The roof for one level would serve as the floor for another. Each level is connected to others by ladders, serving as a unique defensive aid; the ladders are the only way to enter the buildings, as the traditional design has no windows or doors. The lower levels of the buildings were used for storage. Baking ovens are outside the buildings, with water being collected from two natural cisterns. Acoma also has seven rectangular kivas and a village plaza, which serves as the spiritual center for the village.

Since the 1970s, Acoma Pueblo has retained control over education services, which have been keys in maintaining traditional and contemporary lifestyles. They share a high school with Laguna Pueblo. Alcoholism, drug use, and other health issues are prominent on the reservation and Indian Health Service hospitals and native healers cooperate to battle health problems. Alcohol is banned on the Pueblo.

In 1932, George R. Swank published a Master's thesis titled "The Ethnobotany of the Acoma and Laguna Indians," containing short sections on the Puebloans' history, culture and mythology as well as an extensive treatment of plant uses and names.

Warfare and weaponry

Historically, engagements in warfare were common for Acoma, like other Pueblos. Weapons used included war clubs, stones, spears, and darts. The Acoma later would serve as auxiliaries for forces under Spain and Mexico, fighting against raids and protecting merchants on the Santa Fe Trail. After the 19th century, raiding tribes were less of a threat and Acoma military culture began to decline. The war captain position eventually would change to a civil and religious function.

The Acoma Pueblo also has a casino and hotel the Sky City Casino Hotel. The casino and hotel are alcohol-free and are maintained by the Acoma Business Enterprise, which oversees most Acoma businesses.

Arts

thumb|right|Acoma seed pot by B. Aragon - traditionally, seeds were stored inside this type of pottery and the pots broken as needed

At Acoma, pottery remains one of the most notable artforms. Men create weavings and silver jewelry, as well.

  • Rachel Concho, traditional pottery artist known for seed pots

<gallery mode="packed">

File:Runners, Acoma (1909).jpg|Acoma runners,

File:Julio 03.gif|Photograph of Enchanted Mesa taken from Acoma in 1899

File:AcomaIllustration1846.jpg|Illustration of the Acoma mesa from 1846

File:AcomaPuebloReflection.gif|Acoma Pueblo and its reflection in a pool of water

File:Edward S. Curtis Collection People 072.jpg|Acoma water girls by Edward S. Curtis

File:"Catching the Bread" part of the ceremony of the Fiesta de San Esteban (Saint Stephen), Acoma Pueblo, ca.1900 (CHS-4514).jpg|Fiesta de San Esteban, Acoma Pueblo, c. 1900

File:Sky City Cultural Center, Acoma.jpg|The Sky City Cultural Center

File:Lucy lewis fineline jar.jpg|Fineline black-on-white olla by Lucy M. Lewis, c. 1960–1970s, collection of the Fred Jones Jr. Museum of Art

File:An Acoma squaw dress made by Acoma Indian men only, ca.1898 (CHS-5165).jpg|Acoma dress made by men, c. 1898

File:Pueblo of Acoma, Mesa Encantada, Acoma, N. M (NYPL b12647398-62175).tiff|Acoma, Mesa Encantada, 1898

File:Edward S. Curtis Collection People 055.jpg|Acoma woman, 1926

File:Curtis Old trail at Acoma 1904.jpg|Old trail (entrance) to Acoma Pueblo, 1904

File:Curtis Acoma from the South 1904.jpg|View of Acoma from the south, 1904

File:Corral between the rock walls near the Acoma Pueblo, 1886 (CHS-4530).jpg|Corral between the rock walls near the Acoma Pueblo, 1886

File:Building at Acoma Peublo.JPG|An Acoma building

File:AcomaPuebloFromDistance.jpg|View of Acoma mesa, 1899

</gallery>

See also

  • San Estevan Del Rey Mission Church
  • Acoma Indian Reservation
  • Solomon Bibo
  • Enchanted Mesa
  • National Register of Historic Places listings in Cibola County, New Mexico
  • List of National Historic Landmarks in New Mexico
  • List of Indian reservations in the United States
  • List of Native American peoples in the United States
  • List of the oldest buildings in the United States

References

Further reading

  • Minge, Ward Alan and Simon Ortiz. Acoma: Pueblo in the Sky. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press (1991).
  • Acoma Polychrome Water Jar (video), The Metropolitan Museum of Art, Smarthistory
  • Albert J. Capron: The Legend of Pueblo de Acoma, the Cloud City of New Mexico., The Pacific Monthly, Vol. II, Nr. 3, July 1899, p.&nbsp;109 - 116, in Internet Archive
  • AcomaZuni.com: Acoma "Sky City"
  • Ácoma, the sky city: A study in Pueblo-Indian history and civilization (1926), Mrs. William T. Sedgwick, Cambridge: Harvard University Press
  • Virtual Field Trip: Acoma Pueblo (video)