thumb|300px|A Geneva Conference session

thumb|right|300px|The partition of [[French Indochina that resulted from the Conference, including the Kingdom of Cambodia, the Kingdom of Laos, the Democratic Republic of Vietnam, and the State of Vietnam.]]

The Geneva Conference was intended to settle outstanding issues resulting from the Korean War and the First Indochina War and involved several nations. It took place in Geneva, Switzerland, from 26 April to 21 July 1954. The part of the conference on the Korean question ended without adopting any declarations or proposals and so is generally considered less relevant. On the other hand, the Geneva Accords that dealt with the dismantling of French Indochina proved to have long-lasting repercussions.

Diplomats from South Korea, North Korea, China, the Soviet Union, and the United States dealt with the Korean side of the conference. On the Indochina issue, the conference involved representatives from France, China, the Soviet Union, the United States, the United Kingdom, the Democratic Republic of Vietnam (DRV), the State of Vietnam, the Kingdom of Laos, and the Kingdom of Cambodia. Three binding ceasefire agreements about Indochina ended hostilities in Vietnam, Laos, and Cambodia. The Pathet Lao were confined to two provinces in northern Laos, and Khmer Issarak forces disbanded. Vietnam was partitioned at the 17th parallel, with troops and personnel of the DRV regrouping to the North, and those of the State of Vietnam regrouping to the South. Alongside them, a non‑legally binding Final Declaration called for international supervision (via the International Control Commission), prohibited the introduction of foreign troops and bases in Vietnam, affirmed that the 17th parallel was only a provisional border. Worsening relations between the North (communist) and the South (anti-communist) would eventually lead to the Vietnam War. As such, historians generally regard the Geneva Conference as failing to secure lasting peace in Indochina.

Background

On 18 February 1954, at the Berlin Conference, participants agreed that "the problem of restoring peace in Indochina will also be discussed at the Conference [on the Korean question] to which representatives of the United States, France, the United Kingdom, the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics and the Chinese People's Republic and other interested states will be invited."

The conference was held at the Palace of Nations in Geneva, commencing on 26 April 1954. The first agenda item was the Korean question to be followed by Indochina. Fearing further isolation from the emerging de-colonized world, and also a possible American intervention into Indochina, the PRC's Foreign Affairs Ministry (led by Zhou Enlai) would go into the conference with the key objective of breaking the US embargo of China and preventing American military intervention. Moreover, Zhou also stressed adopting a more "realistic" and moderate attitude which could deliver tangible results to the Indochina problem.

Indochina

Following World War II, with the overthrow of French colonial rule and the surrender of Japan, the French returned to reconquer Indochina; meanwhile, the Vietnamese were locked in a civil strife over the destiny of their postcolonial state. After the communist-led Viet Minh purge of rival political parties and the breakdown of negotiations, tensions between the Viet Minh and Vietnamese non-communist authorities erupted into full-scale war in December 1946. Initially weak, the Viet Minh pursued guerrilla warfare under the pretext of fighting against the French.

In 1950, communist China and the Soviet Union recognized the Democratic Republic of Vietnam (DRV), while the United States and several other Western countries recognized the French-associated State of Vietnam (SVN). The colonial war and the civil war in Indochina became internationalized and intertwined with the global Cold War. while China and, to a lesser extent, the Soviet Union aided the DRV. After a series of offensives, hostilities culminated in a decisive French defeat at the Battle of Dien Bien Phu, resulting in the convening of the Geneva Conference.

It was decided that Vietnam would be divided at the 17th parallel, at which time democratic elections would be held under international supervision and auspices. All parties agreed to the proposed partition of Vietnam, except the US and the SVN. The Viet Minh refused to hold free elections under United Nations supervision.

Korea

The South Korean representative proposed that the South Korean government was the only legal government in Korea, that UN-supervised elections should be held in the North, that Chinese forces should withdraw, and that UN forces, a belligerent party in the war, should remain as a police force. The North Korean representative suggested that elections be held throughout all of Korea, that all foreign forces leave beforehand, that the elections be run by an all-Korean Commission to be made up of equal parts from North and South Korea, and to increase general relations economically and culturally between the North and the South.

The Chinese delegation proposed an amendment to have a group of 'neutral' nations supervise the elections, which the North accepted. The U.S. supported the South Korean position, saying that the USSR wanted to turn North Korea into a puppet state. Most allies remained silent and at least one, Britain, thought that the South Korean–U.S. proposal would be deemed unreasonable. In the end, however, the conference participants did not agree on any declaration.

Indochina

While the delegates had begun to assemble in Geneva in late April, the discussions on Indochina did not begin until 8 May 1954. The Viet Minh had achieved their decisive victory over the French Union forces at Dien Bien Phu the previous day.

  • free general elections by secret ballot shall be held in July 1956, under the supervision of an international commission (which had not provided any specific mechanisms, and this was recorded only in the unsigned Final Declaration of the Conference).

The agreement was signed by the Democratic Republic of Vietnam, France, the People's Republic of China, the Soviet Union, and the United Kingdom. The State of Vietnam rejected the agreement, while the United States stated that it "took note" of the ceasefire agreements and declared that it would "refrain from the threat or use of force to disturb them.

Division at the 17th Parallel meant that the Democratic Republic of Vietnam was giving up a large area currently under its control south of that line while gaining only a very small area, not already under its control, north of the line.

Separate accords were signed by the signatories with the Kingdom of Cambodia and the Kingdom of Laos in relation to Cambodia and Laos respectively. Following the terms of the agreement, Laos would be governed by the Royal Lao Government, while Cambodia would be ruled by the royal court of Norodom Sihanouk. Despite retaining its monarchy, the agreement also allowed for "VWP-affiliated Laotian forces" to run the provinces of Xam Neua and Phongsaly, further expanding North Vietnamese influence within Indochina. Communist forces in Cambodia, however, would remain out of power.

Reactions

thumb|Demonstration in Hanoi opposing the Viet Minh's proposed partition of Vietnam.

thumb|Caricature in a Saigon periodical, satirizing the division of Vietnam by foreign powers at the Geneva Conference. The angel of peace looks worried as the Russian bear, French rooster, British lion, and American eagle surround the tiny Vietnamese dove lying on the table.

The DRV at Geneva accepted a much worse settlement than the military situation on the ground indicated. "For Ho Chi Minh, there was no getting around the fact that his victory, however unprecedented and stunning was incomplete and perhaps temporary. The vision that had always driven him on, that of a 'great union' of all Vietnamese, had flickered into view for a fleeting moment in 1945–46, then had been lost in the subsequent war. Now, despite vanquishing the French military, the dream remained unrealized ..."

Aftermath

On 9 October 1954, the tricolore was lowered for the last time at the Hanoi Citadel and the last French Union forces left the city, crossing the Paul Doumer Bridge on their way to Haiphong for embarkation. The CIA's role in influencing the immigrants' decisions was minimal, since Catholic migrants were motivated mainly by their own convictions and circumstances rather than by external propaganda. At least 500,000 Catholics, approximately 200,000 Buddhists, and tens of thousands from ethnic minority groups migrated to the South. Around the same time, between 14,000 – 45,000 civilians and approximately 100,000 Viet Minh fighters moved in the opposite direction.

The U.S. replaced the French as a political backup for Ngo Dinh Diem, the Prime Minister of the State of Vietnam, who asserted his power in the South. The Geneva conference had not provided any specific mechanisms for the national elections planned for 1956, and Diem refused to hold them by citing that the South had not signed and was not bound to the Geneva Accords and that it was impossible to hold free elections in the communist North. Robert F. Turner has argued that North Vietnam violated the Geneva Accords by failing to withdraw all Viet Minh troops from South Vietnam, stifling the movement of North Vietnamese refugees, and conducting a military buildup that more than doubled the number of armed divisions in the North Vietnamese army while the South Vietnamese army was reduced by 20,000 men.

On 20 May 1955, French Union forces withdrew from Saigon to a coastal base and on 28 April 1956, the last French forces left Vietnam. The failure of reunification led to the creation of the National Liberation Front (better known as the Viet Cong) by Ho Chi Minh's government. They were closely aided by the Vietnam People's Army (VPA) of the North, also known as the North Vietnamese Army. The result was the Vietnam War. The Vietnamese communist leadership never expected the 1956 election to take place, nor did they believe peaceful reunification was possible. They saw military force as the only way to reunite the country but continued to raise the election issue for its propaganda value.

Despite glaring errors with the partition, the Chinese would still manage to largely benefit from the conference's results. In addition to gaining an independent North Vietnam, China would also open up "dialogues with France, Britain, and the United States". Furthermore, China, as a result of this expanded and moderate international approach, also helped to weaken America's attempt to label China as a "Red" radical within the region. Historian Christopher Goscha pointed out that while the Geneva Conference brought an end to French fighting, it failed to prevent the resurgence of a Vietnamese civil war or more direct American military involvement in Indochina.

See also

  • Reunification Day
  • Korean conflict
  • Korean War

References

Citations

Sources

  • The 1954 Geneva Conference, Wilson Center – Cold War International History Project
  • Geneva Conference of 1954, Wilson Center Digital Archive
  • Bibliography: Dien Bien Phu and the Geneva Conference
  • "Foreign Relations of the United States, 1952–1954, The Geneva Conference, Volume XVI"