The Okeechobee hurricane of 1928, also known as the San Felipe Segundo hurricane and Florida's Forgotten Storm, was one of the deadliest hurricanes in the recorded history of the North Atlantic basin, and the fourth deadliest hurricane in the United States, only behind the 1900 Galveston hurricane, 1899 San Ciriaco hurricane, and Hurricane Maria in 2017. The hurricane killed an estimated 2,500 people in the United States; most of the fatalities occurred in the state of Florida, particularly around Lake Okeechobee. It was the fourth tropical cyclone, third hurricane, and only major hurricane of the 1928 Atlantic hurricane season, and remains the deadliest disaster in Florida's history to date. It developed off the west coast of Africa on September 6 as a tropical depression, but it strengthened into a tropical storm later that day, shortly before passing south of the Cape Verde islands. Further intensification was slow and halted late on September 7. About 48 hours later, the storm strengthened and became a Category 1 hurricane on the Saffir–Simpson hurricane wind scale. Still moving westward, the system reached Category 4 intensity before striking Guadeloupe on September 12, where it brought great destruction and resulted in 1,200 deaths. The islands of Martinique, Montserrat, and Nevis also reported damage and fatalities, but not nearly as severe as in Guadeloupe.
Around midday on September 13, the storm strengthened into a Category 5 hurricane and peaked with sustained winds of . About six hours later, the system made landfall in Puerto Rico; it remains the only tropical cyclone on record to strike the island at Category 5 intensity. Very strong winds resulted in severe damage in Puerto Rico; 24,728 homes were destroyed and 192,444 were damaged throughout the island, leaving over 500,000 people homeless. Heavy rainfall also led to extreme damage to vegetation and agriculture. On Puerto Rico alone, there were 312 deaths and about US$50 million ($ million today) in damage. While crossing the island and emerging into the Atlantic, the storm weakened slightly, falling to Category 4 intensity. It began crossing through the Bahamas on September 16, where it resulted in 18 fatalities.
The storm made landfall near West Palm Beach, Florida, early on September 17, with winds of . In the city, more than 1,711 homes were destroyed; the effects were most severe around Lake Okeechobee. The storm surge caused water to pour out of the southern edge of the lake, flooding hundreds of square miles to depths as great as . Numerous houses and buildings were swept away in the cities of Belle Glade, Canal Point, Chosen, Pahokee, and South Bay, Florida. At least 2,500 people drowned, while damage was estimated at $25 million ($ million today). The system weakened significantly while crossing Florida, falling to Category 1 intensity late on September 17. It curved north-northeast and briefly emerged into the Atlantic on September 18, but soon made another landfall near Edisto Island, South Carolina, with winds of . Early on the following day, the system weakened to a tropical storm and became an extratropical cyclone over North Carolina hours later. Overall, the hurricane caused $100 million in damage ($ million today) and killed at least 4,114 people.
Meteorological history
On September 6, ships reported a tropical depression developing just off the west coast of Africa near Dakar, Senegal. On the next day, a ship reported winds of , or tropical storm status; on this basis, the Atlantic hurricane reanalysis project estimated that the system attained tropical storm status late on September 6. However, lack of observations for several days prevented the system from being classified in real time as it moved generally westward across the Atlantic Ocean. On September 10, the S.S. Commack first observed the storm about to the east of Guadeloupe, which at the time was the most easterly report of a tropical cyclone ever received through ship's radio. Later that day, two other ships confirmed the intensity of the storm,
A ship near the southern coast reported a pressure of , and the cup anemometer at San Juan reported sustained winds of before failing. and damage reports relayed through Paris indicated "great destruction" on the island.
{| class="wikitable" style="float:right; margin:10px;"
! colspan="4" |Storm deaths by region
|-
!Region
!Deaths
!Locale
!Deaths
|-
! rowspan="8" |Caribbean
and Bahamas
| rowspan="8" |1,601
|Martinique
|3
|-
|Guadeloupe
|1,200
|-
|Montserrat
|42
|-
|Dominica
|1
|-
|Saint Kitts and Nevis
|22
|-
|Puerto Rico
|312
|-
|Turks and Caicos Islands
|18
|-
|Bahamas
|3
|-
! rowspan="4" |United States
| rowspan="4" |2,511+
|Florida
|2,500+ All commercial and government buildings on the island were destroyed, as were more than 600 homes. Saint Kitts and Nevis also suffered heavily. On the island of Saint Kitts, a number of homes built on wooden foundations were demolished. Nine deaths were reported, six of which occurred in a schoolhouse collapse. Thirteen people were killed on the island of Nevis.
The storm destroyed hundreds of homes on Antigua, including a doctor's home and a "poor house". Government offices, hospitals, and school were also damaged. Saint Thomas reported sustained winds of about . The hurricane demolished a new breakwater and several warehouses, ruined a naval yard, and capsized barges. Only minimal damage occurred on the nearby island of Saint John. On Saint Croix, nearly all of the island's 11,000 residents suffered some degree of loss. A total of 143 buildings were destroyed, including a sugar mill. The storm resulted in nine deaths on the island. Throughout the Virgin Islands, as many as 700,000 people were rendered homeless.
Puerto Rico
left|thumb|upright|Hurricane-force winds drove this piece of [[Lumber#Dimensional lumber|2x4 lumber through a palm tree in Puerto Rico]]
While the storm was passing near Dominica, the U.S. Weather Bureau located at San Juan, Puerto Rico, warned about the threat of the hurricane which would strike the island within a day or two. The advisory was sent via telegraph to 75 police districts and was broadcast from the naval radio station every two hours;
The rainfall recorded on September 13–14, 1928, remains the record for the maximum rainfall associated with a hurricane in Puerto Rico within a period of forty-eight hours. In those regions where precipitation is more common place, as in Adjuntas in the Cordillera Central and in the Sierra de Luquillo, the rain was over , with recorded in Adjuntas. The anemometer located in Puerta de Tierra lost one of its cups at 11:44 am on September 13, just when it had registered a maximum speed of —a speed that was sustained for five consecutive minutes. Previously the same instrument had measured for one minute. Because these measurements were taken from San Felipe's eye, at the time, it seemed possible that some estimates of near the center of the storm were not overdrawn.
There was general destruction through the island, with the towns where the eye passed being swept away.
On the island there was no building that was not affected. Some sugar mills ("Centrales") that had cost millions of dollars to build were reduced to rubble. Reports say that 24,728 homes were destroyed and 192,444 were partially destroyed.
Communications were disrupted by fallen trees, landslides, and damaged bridges. Some 770 school buildings were destroyed or damaged. According to some estimates of the day, excluding personal losses, the damages reached $85.312 million and more than 500,000 people were left homeless. Until Hurricane Maria 89 years later, San Felipe II was officially classified as Puerto Rico's biggest, worst, and most devastating hurricane to ever have hit the island.The hurricane obliterated many bridges, roads, and buildings, and approximately 100 homes on Cat Island, including about 60 in Bight alone. Ninety-five houses and some other buildings, including a few churches and government buildings, were damaged or destroyed on Eleuthera. A reporter for The Nassau Guardian stated that "The years 1866 and 1926 will now be forgotten, and 1928 will hold first place as the year of the worst storm that has ever visited this part of the island of Eleuthera." Sustained winds of were observed on Bimini, causing major damage to buildings, including "rum row", a strategic port for smuggling alcohol into the United States during Prohibition. The storm beached or several vessels on Grand Bahama and carried away a number of docks. Many roads on the island were washed out and rendered impassable, while most residences experienced at least severe damage.
Florida
thumb|left|Pictures of the flooding and damage caused by the hurricane in Florida|230x230px
While the hurricane was moving through the Bahamas, the Weather Bureau issued storm warnings from Miami to Titusville, later upgrading to a hurricane warning from Miami to Daytona Beach. The agency advised residents to take precautions for the hurricane, citing the potential for strong winds and waves. Hurricane warnings were also posted for the west coast from Punta Rassa to Apalachicola, and after the storm recurved, hurricane warnings were extended along the east coast to Jacksonville.
In addition to the human fatalities, 1,278 livestock and 47,389 poultry were killed. Agriculture was significantly affected, with the storm destroying what may have been the largest "citrus crop in the history of the industry". Approximately 6% of oranges and 18% of grapefruit were ruined. Harvesting the remaining crops was delayed until mid-October due to inundated groves. Communications also suffered severely. Throughout the state, 32,000 households were left without telephone service and 400 poles were broken and about 2,500 others leaning. Governor of Florida John W. Martin estimated that 15,000 families were left homeless in Palm Beach County alone. Additionally, about 11,500 families would need to be "re-established".
Coastal South Florida
thumb|left|Aftermath of the hurricane in southern FloridaIn Miami, damage was minimal, limited to broken windows and awnings. In Hollywood and Fort Lauderdale, windows and roofs were damaged, although to a fairly minor extent. Northward, from Pompano Beach to Jupiter, buildings suffered serious damage from the heavy winds and storm surge.
thumb|Front page of [[The Palm Beach Post on September 18, regarding the hurricane's impact in Florida]]
In Lake Worth, approximately 50% of homes were damaged or destroyed, while 75% of buildings in the business district suffered damage. In West Palm Beach, the storm destroyed 1,711 homes and damaged 6,369 others, and demolished 268 businesses and impacted 490 other businesses; the city suffered the worst damage, totaling just under $13.8 million. Approximately 600 structures, including 10 hotels, were damaged in Palm Beach. Damage totaled over $2 million. At the Jupiter Inlet Lighthouse, the mortar was reportedly "squeezed ... like toothpaste" from between the bricks during the storm, swaying the tower off the base. The lighthouse keeper, Captain Seabrook, and his son, Franklin, worked to keep the light on during the storm after the electricity went out. After the generator failed to work, they hand-cranked the light's mantle. The building formerly used as a Weather Bureau Office was destroyed. Nearby, several people died after a house was demolished. Six other fatalities occurred west of Jupiter after a school where people sought shelter collapsed.
Lake Okeechobee and Everglades
left|thumb|270x270px|Map of the hurricane over Florida on September 17
Inland, the hurricane wreaked much more widespread destruction along the more heavily populated coast of Lake Okeechobee. Residents had been warned to evacuate the low ground earlier in the day, but after the hurricane did not arrive on schedule, many thought it had missed and returned to their homes. In the weeks prior to the storm, heavy rainfall had caused the lake to rise between August 10 and September 10 and filled nearby canals and ditches. Precipitation from the hurricane itself caused Lake Okeechobee to rise further. Most survivors and bodies were washed out into the Everglades, where many of the bodies were never found. In Okeechobee County, homes along the lake were destroyed by the storm surge, while dwellings within the city of Okeechobee were severely damaged or demolished by winds of at least . However, brick and concrete dwellings suffered little damage. A number of three-story business buildings collapsed during the storm. Overall, 27 deaths occurred in Okeechobee County. Along the southwestern shore of Lake Okeechobee, the towns of Clewiston and Moore Haven were both flooded, but most houses suffered more damage due to strong winds.
On Kreamer Island, many residents received information about the storm when it was too late to evacuate. In some houses, 20–30 people sought shelter inside and later stood on tables and chairs to remain above the water. Most of the houses were swept away into rows of pine trees and others more than away. Despite this, only one person drowned on the island. Residents of Torry Island did not have enough time to prepare for the storm. They tried to evacuate, but with the causeway already inundated, twenty-three people sought refuge in a packinghouse. Floodwaters entered the building, forcing the occupants into the rafters. The building was eventually pushed into a nearby canal. Ten people drowned, but thirteen others survived by clinging to a barge or tree tops, while one woman tied herself to a telegraph pole. Others who survived were swept far away from the original sites of the building and the barge. A teenage boy was carried from the packinghouse to the Everglades Experiment Station in Belle Glade – a distance of about .
thumb|293x293px|Rainfall totals from the hurricane
In South Bay, nearly all houses were destroyed and several buildings were unroofed. At least 160 fatalities occurred in the city. Throughout the 1920s, Okeelanta had suffered several floods and muck fires. After being flooded severely during the 1928 hurricane, it was abandoned. Bean City was also destroyed during the hurricane, but it was eventually rebuilt by Arthur Wells. Sebring Farms was reduced to piles of rubber, with only four tall royal palm trees left standing. The hotel at Miami Locks was the only building to survive the storm. Ninety-nine people died in that town. In Chosen, only two people escaped a house that had sheltered nineteen people. Twenty other residents took refuge in a building which lost its roof during the storm, forcing the occupants to move into the restroom. A house that was full of people floated about from its original location. The refugees were unaware that the house was moving until it collided with a railroad embankment.
Central and North Florida
In Fort Myers, property damage was slight, limited mostly to scores of small boats and fishing shacks along the waterfront. Nearly all cigar factories in Tampa were closed after wind and rain drove too much moisture into the buildings. Offshore, the fishing smack Wallace A. McDonnell was beached near Piney Point, though all of the crew survived. The Cuban schooner Isabel Alvado sank offshore Boca Grande. The crew, who were immigrants, were rescued by the Coast Guard and later deported. In Martin County, a bridge connecting Stuart and Palm City was severely damaged and closed to traffic as a result. A temporary ferry service across the St. Lucie River was established and operated until repairs to the bridge were complete in the summer of 1929. In Fort Pierce, most of the effects were confined to the waterfront areas. A warehouse, fish houses, docks, and a bridge across the Indian River were destroyed, while several other buildings were unroofed. Damage in the city totaled about $150,000. In Orlando, damage to properties was described as slight.
Elsewhere
thumb|265x265px|Map of the hurricane re-emerging over water and approaching landfall in South Carolina on September 18
Outside Florida, damage from the hurricane elsewhere in the United States was minor. In Georgia, low-lying streets were flooded or washed out in the Savannah area,
In South Carolina, the storm contributed to the heavy rains that fell throughout the month of September. The Black River at Kingstree crested at a record height of . Winds also caused about $1.5 million in damage, especially to crops and trees. Likewise, North Carolina reported heavy rains and gale-force winds across the eastern half of the state. Some locations along the Cape Fear River reported record-high crests, including at Fayetteville and at Elizabethtown. Flooding washed out highways and caused many others to be closed, while reports describe the flooding at Lumberton as "the worst in history."
Storm surge in Virginia reached above mean lower low water in Norfolk, while Cape Henry recorded sustained winds of . The Virginia section of Climatological Data noted that the storm "did considerable damage to some crops." In Maryland, storm surge and abnormally high tides caused flooding along the waterfronts of Annapolis and Baltimore – including damaging nearby properties and merchandise – and capsized several small vessels. Three people died in Baltimore. Winds caused damage in portions of that state, with 10 homes losing their tin roofs in Hagerstown. Ocean City reported about $60,000 in damage, with the cyclone destroying the airport and an airplane, unroofing three cottages, and shattering many windows. Maryland suffered significant losses to corn and tomato crops, while fruit was blown from trees. A coal barge sank at Lewes, Delaware. Damage in Delaware, Virginia, and Washington, D.C. combined exceeded $1 million.
thumb|left|Map of the hurricane's extratropical remnants over North Carolina on September 19
After the hurricane became extratropical, its wind field became very large. Atlantic City, New Jersey, recorded winds of despite being far from the center. The West Jersey and Seashore Railroad bridges linking Ocean City, Stone Harbor, and Wildwood to the mainland were washed out. Additionally, the cyclone destroyed about of railroad tracks in Point Pleasant. Near Perth Amboy, a tree fell on car occupied by multiple individuals, including Hamilton F. Kean, a candidate for the 1928 United States Senate election in New Jersey. After being rescued, Kean went to a campaign event in Union City as planned. The Garden State Fair in Bridgeton closed after the storm damaged small buildings, whisked away tents, and tossed exhibition animals for distances as long as hundreds of feet. Extensive losses to corn, dahlia, and peaches occurred in the vicinity of Mullica Hill. Several small boats capsized in Westchester County.
In Massachusetts, the storm produced sustained winds up to along the coast, but The Boston Globe noted that no damage to shipping occurred, although several yachts at the Orient Heights Yachts Club were driven away from their moorings. High seas at Plymouth beached several vessels, with some suffering considerable damage. Power outages and disruptions to telephone service occurred in Cambridge after winds downed several wires.
Aftermath
In the United States Virgin Islands (USVI), the American Red Cross conducted most of their recovery operations on Saint Croix due to the storm passing near that island. Overall, the organization provided food to 852 families, clothing to 320 families, and building materials to or assistance in reconstructing the residences of 262 families. Among the building material sent by the Red Cross were "125 square feet [11.6129 square metres] of galvanized corrugated iron sheets, 100,000 broad feet [30,480 metres] of roof sheeting, and 140,000 broad feet [42,672 metres] of assorted lumber", as noted by Eliot Kleinberg. In monetary terms, the Red Cross spent just over $34,500 in aid to the USVI.
Relief expenditures for the USVI and Puerto Rico combined exceeded $3.2 million, with the vast majority of that total being received by the latter. This included almost $1.4 million for building materials, just under $694,000 for agricultural programs, nearly $526,000 for food, about $185,000 for grants to local Red Cross chapters, close to $164,000 for clothing, around $148,700 for administrative expenses, and approximately $70,500 for medical services, among other recovery costs. Within Puerto Rico alone, the organization distributed food to 128,513 families, clothing to 65,901 families, and building material to 37,344 families, along with an initial shipment of 2 million pounds of beans, flour, pork, and salt; roughly 36,000 blankets, 5,000 cots, and almost 1,000 tents. The Insular Health Department and the Red Cross also provided hundreds of thousands to millions of antitoxins and vaccines for protection against diphtheria, tetanus, and typhoid. For the USVI, Puerto Rico, and the mainland United States combined, the Red Cross received more than $5.9 million in contributions.
A British Royal Navy ship called Durban arrived at Grand Turk in the Turks and Caicos Islands on September 26 to offer aid, which was mostly declined except for a shipment of potatoes. The Durban, ridden by future King George VI, continued on to Nassau in the Bahamas. The Bahamian Board of Agriculture distributed corn seeds and requested tomato seeds.
Florida
thumb|left|Historical marker at the [[hurricane of 1928 African-American Mass Burial Site|mass grave in West Palm Beach]]
In the immediate aftermath of the deadly storm, relief arrived from nearby areas such as Miami. The Miami Red Cross Citizens Relief Committee, which was established to provide aid for victims of the storm, transported "hundreds of loaves of bread, gallons of milk, pounds of coffee and sugar, blankets, cots, and medical supplies." The first relief train was ridden by U.S. Senator Joseph T. Robinson, the Democratic vice presidential nominee during the election that year. At least 100 people were brought to Miami for medical treatment. In Lake Worth, 25 people were treated for various injuries at the Gulf Stream Hotel and the local fire station. Dr. W. A. Claxton, chief of the Miami Department of Public Welfare, requested antitoxin, typhoid serum, and at least 200 tetanus serums. There was also a request for 1,000 more cots in West Palm Beach and Kelsey City.
A total of 3,390 American Red Cross volunteers across the United States assisted with relief efforts. Overall, individual contributions to the organization reached almost $5.9 million, while the American Red Cross itself spent about $50,000 of its own funds on relief efforts. More than $1.1 million in contributions came from the state of New York alone. American Red Cross expenditures included about $1.3 million for building and repairs, $346,300 for household goods, $157,300 for clothing, $137,000 for food, $121,200 for agricultural supplies and equipment, $115,500 for family aid and service registration, $115,000 for field expenses, $83,200 for general tool and equipment expenses, $71,800 for medical services, $66,800 for grants to local chapters, $60,300 for relief camps, $45,900 for rescue work, $39,800 for boarding and lodging of storm victims, $19,900 for other miscellaneous expenses, $11,000 for the transportation of storm victims, and $5,000 for the Junior Red Cross. Many local Red Cross chapters throughout Florida sheltered refugees, donated goods and supplies, or otherwise provided assistance to storm victims. The American Red Cross was criticized for claims of skimping on aid given to some people and even accused of racial discrimination, including a relief committee chairwoman telling The Chicago Defender that only 20% of relief was being dispersed to African Americans. However, the American Red Cross, The Salvation Army, and Mary McLeod Bethune denied these claims in a telegraph to the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP).
In October 1928 alone, permits for repair work projects exceeding $2 million were approved for Palm Beach and West Palm Beach, with the latter issuing 3,165 permits for building and major repairs between October 1 and June 30, 1929. Some towns along the shores of Lake Okeechobee slowly rebuilt, such as Belle Glade, where the population grew significantly due to people searching for work in the agricultural and natural resources industries during the Great Depression. However, other localities such as Chosen, Fruitcrest, and Okeelanta, never recovered from the storm. In Martin County, plans to build a Hollywood-esque city called Picture City fell through following the 1928 hurricane and subsequent economic collapse.
Racial issues
thumb|right|The historical marker added to the memorial site in 2003, the seventy-fifth anniversary of the storm
In Florida, although the hurricane's destruction affected everything in its path, the death toll was by far the highest and the aftermath the worst in the economically poor areas in the low-lying ground near Lake Okeechobee, such as the towns of Belle Glade, Chosen, Pahokee, South Bay, and Bean City. Around 75% of the fatalities were among migrant farm workers, most of whom were black.
The black workers did most of the post-hurricane cleanup work. Reflecting racial and class discrimination, authorities reserved the few caskets available for burials for the bodies of whites. White victims received a formal burial service, although in a mass grave, at Woodlawn Cemetery in downtown West Palm Beach.
Improved building codes
In the aftermath of the hurricane in coastal Florida, observers noted that well-constructed buildings with shutters had suffered practically no damage from winds that caused serious structural problems to lesser buildings. Buildings with well-constructed frames, and those made of steel, concrete, brick, or stone, were largely immune to winds. The use of shutters prevented damage to windows and the interior of the buildings. With the 1928 hurricane coming so soon after the 1926 Miami hurricane, where a similar pattern had been noticed, one lasting result of the 1928 storm was improved state and local building codes.
thumb|right|A sign advertising the completion of the [[Herbert Hoover Dike|Hoover Dike]]
Flood control
To prevent a recurrence of disasters like this one and the Great Miami Hurricane of 1926, the Florida State Legislature created the Okeechobee Flood Control District, which was authorized to cooperate with the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers in flood control undertakings. After a personal inspection of the area by President Herbert Hoover, the Corps of Engineers drafted a plan to provide for the construction of floodway channels, control gates, and major levees along the shores of Lake Okeechobee. A long-term system was designed for the purpose of flood control, water conservation, prevention of saltwater intrusion, and preservation of fish and wildlife populations.
Name
The storm was named the San Felipe II hurricane in Puerto Rico because the eye of the cyclone made landfall there on September 13, the Roman Catholic feast day of Saint Philip,
In 1953, the United States Weather Bureau (now the National Weather Service) started naming hurricanes by human female names until 1978. That year both gender names began to be used after control over naming was relinquished to the World Meteorological Organization. It was not until 1960 that Puerto Rico stopped naming hurricanes after saints. Two cyclones have been given both women's and saint's names: Hurricane Betsy (Santa Clara, August 12, 1956) and Hurricane Donna (San Lorenzo, September 5, 1960).